Nano-diamond Powder Layer Effect on Fast Neutrons Reflection

Nano-diamond Powder Layer Effect on Fast Neutrons Reflection A. Taghian, D. Rahi, H. Sadeghi Abstract: This paper has investigated the effect of nano-diamond powder on reflection of fast neutrons. It compares the effect of graphite and nano-dimond layers on reflection of fast neutrons. Nano-diamond as a new article that theres carbon in families of many of the behaviors and properties of carbon and other members of the family, the impact of the application of this article accepts it without knowing so, and understand it without understanding the carbon carbon and other members of the family is not possible. Nano-diamond in addition to diamonds, diamond properties such as hardness, resistance to different environments and The small size and a shell with active groups that it has different properties to conventional diamonds. On the one hand the diverse applications of properties and provide new and on the other hand, production and working with this article difficult. Of course, the proper use of diamond in different applications when possible, which is a non-diamond carbon and other impurities as possible are separated from it in addition any application requires special surface properties as well. The amount of impurities in synthetic diamond production depends on the extreme ways. We used 241Am-Be 100  µCi, BF3 and LiI detector in the present study. Two materials have been coated. The experimental and simulated results have good agreement with consideration of errors. The results show that fast neutrons reflection could be carried out by nano-diamond powder better than graphite. Keyword: 1-Nano-diamond powder 2-Graphite 3-Neutron 4-Neutron reflection 5- BF3 detector 6-LiI detector 1-Introduction Neutrons shielding is based on the fast neutrons reflection as prompt and delay gamma are produced by neutron capture [1]. The scattering cross section of hydrogen is high for neutrons. So, hydrogen containing material such as polyethylene and hydrocarbon are used for neutron shielding [1]. Diamond has cubic lattice structure [2]. In this structure, one carbon atom is surrounded by four atom of carbon with covalent bonds. Very strong covalent bond of a carbon adjacent atom is caused by increasing of elastic modulus and ultra-high temperature stability [2]. Therefore, they make the strongest natural material. The structure of bulk material is 3D. But, the structure of nanomaterial is 2D (thin film), 1D (nanorod and nanotube) and zero dimensions (nanoparticle and nanocrystal). In addition to change properties of material, this technology increases the surface to volume ratio. Therefore, the ratio of surface reaction increases on the material. By development of nuclear technology over the past 40 years, rules and standards of the IAEA have become more difficult and smaller for absorbed dose of personalities and environments in different conditions. There have been many limitations for neutron shield construction such as mass and volume of the shield [3]. 2-Investigatin of neutron reflector Reflectors are used in reactors to prevent neutrons escaping. The best reflector has small absorption cross section and large scattering cross section. Graphite and beryllium (according to solid phase) are usually used for reflection of neutrons. Actually, the size of structural units (a) must be comparable to the wavelength of neutrons (ÃŽ »). Coherent and efficient scattering of neutrons is proportional to the ratio of ÃŽ »/a. A neutron can be described by wavelength, ÃŽ » and wave vector . The neutron energy is equal to , and are mass, energy and Plank constant respectively [2]. The neutron beam intensity is decreased by transmission across material. The neutron beam intensity reduction is equal to , , and are thickness of material, number of atoms in unit volume and total cross section respectively [1,4]. 3-Experimental setup 3-1-BF3 detector BF3 detector is used for detection of thermal neutron. It works on proportional region. The isotope of 10B is used in the BF3 gas detector. The absorption cross section of 10B is large for absorbing of thermal neutrons. The BF3 counter detects the alpha and the lithium particles produced by the reaction [4,6,5]: The efficiency of BF3 detector is proportional to absorption cross section of 10B and it changes for neutrons with different energies. 3-2- LiI detector In addition of BF3 detector, LiI detector has been used for detection of neutron. 6LiI is an inorganic scintillator. Neutron detection by 6Li is based on the reaction The cross section for this reaction is of the l/v type up to 10 keV, with a value of 937 b at 0.025 eV [3, 6]. 3-3- The used material The neutron source was 241Am-Be 100  µCi. The BF3 and LiI detectors were used with 2 cm diameter and 20 and 14 cm height respectively. The BF3 and LiI detectors were located on polyethylene base. 3-3-1- The origin and fabrication method of the nano-diamond powders Diamond powder production properties depend on the method. Desired characteristics are obtained by purification and properties are determined. A manufacturing process for milling the nano-diamond to the appropriate size is explosive method. Diamond powder production common methods are carried out in dry (environmental gas synthesis) and wet (water base) mediums. The Nano-diamond powder production was carried out by blasting method which could lead to the Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, nitrogen monoxide and etc. creation. The tiny particles of diamond are formed along with some solid impurities mixed with gases in the blast chamber. Table 1 shows the chemical analysis of ash samples. The results recorded in the table indicate the chemical analysis of ash residue from the combustion of the samples by wet chemical methods which are XRD, ICP. Table 1: The chemical analysis of ash samples are presented In the nano-diamond powder manufacturing process through blasting, diamond particles are formed at pressures higher than 200 kilo bars. At temperatures above 1000  ° C, the low pressure converted particles into graphite. Methods of separation and purification of gas and liquid nano- diamonds are divided into two groups that raise the cost of investment. After all purification of the resulting material is carried out as the carbonic compound still has many types and amounts of impurities such as O, N, H, a small amount of metal and carbondioxide. Nano- diamond is then purified and turned ashen while the ash explosion leads to a large amount of black and dark -graphite production. Powder used in these experiments was purified by liquid method. In this method, different oxidizing agents such as acids, mixed acids, bases and salts are used. All these methods are only carried out in laboratory scale. Characteristics of nano-diamond powder used are shown in Table 2. Table 2: The properties of the used nano-diamond powder in experiments Figure 1 shows the measured spectrum of 100  µCi 241Am-Be neutron source supplied by I.R. Iran Atomic Energy Agency and figure 2 show absorption cross section of 10B and 11B. Figure 1: Neutron spectrum of 241Am-Be Figure 2: Variation of neutron cross section of 10B and 11B isotopes 3-4-Geometry The experimental setups have been sketched in figure 3 and 4 for investigation of graphite and nano-diamond layers effect on reflection of fast neutrons. Figure 3: The experimental setup for investigation of graphite and nano-diamond layers effect on reflection of fast neutrons Figure 4: The experimental setup for investigation of graphite and nano-diamond layers effect on shielding of fast neutrons In the present study of neutron reflection, the height and radial of the cylinder are 35 cm and 11 cm respectively with one side open and the other closed. The neutron source is in center of the cylinder and the detector is placed in front of the open side. The cylinder is made of polyethylene with 2 mm thickness. Graphite and nano-diamond are coated with polyethylene in cylinder. The distance of the detector lateral surface and the open side of the cylinder was 20 cm. The thicknesses of coated graphite and nano-diamond were 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mm. The background neutrons are originated from walls, floor and other instrument in the around environment. A polyethylene cube with 10 cm thickness and a lead block with 2 cm thickness are located between source and detector for absorption of emitted gamma rays and neutrons from source. This geometry detects gamma rays background and neutrons. This work repeats for each measurement with and without absorbers. The first and second counts are foreground and background respectively. If background subtracts from foreground count, the result will be net count of reflected neutrons from cylinder to detector. To investigate the neutron shielding properties, neutron source has been located in center of graphite cubic with 2 mm thickness. Also, the LiI detector has been set in front of one side of the graphite cubic. Graphite and nano-diamond are coated on the same side of graphite cubic. The distance between the detector lateral surface and the open side of the cubic was 15 cm. The thicknesses of coated graphite and nano-diamond were 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mm. 4-Results of measurements As mentioned above, the thicknesses of graphite and nano-diamond were 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mm respectively. In each measurement, the same thicknesses were compared at a margin oferrorequal to  ±23 percent. The errors come from neutron source and count measurement as the error of neutron source was  ±15 percent and the count measurement (N) one was N1/2.The neutron counts in different thicknesses of graphite and nano-diamond are shown in figure 5 and 6. Figure 5: Neutron count diagram for graphite and nano-diamond layers with different thicknesses (Reflection) Figure 6: Neutron count diagram for graphite and nano-diamond layers with different thickness (Shielding) 5-Simulated results by Monte-Carlo method All the system parts have been simulated by Monte-Carlo method. We have used MCNPX2.6 to calculate the absorbed dose. MCNPX2.6 is a general purpose of Monte Carlo radiation transport code designed to track many particle types over broad ranges of energies. Form of molecule, bond and density are changed in a nano chemical composition. Coulomb force determines the form of molecules. The total charge of the neutron is zero. Therefore, there is no effect on neutron cross section with matter of nano scale. Also, the neutron reaction is nuclear and it is independent of charge or electron cloud so that it can be simulated by MCNP code. Therefore, it is not important to consider the nano-scale of the nano-diamond. However, nano-scale affects density and it must be noted in Monte-Carlo input. The neutron flux has been calculated in the sensitive volume of BF3 and LiI detectors with different thicknesses of graphite and nano-diamond. The results are shown in figure 7 and 8. Figure 7: Calculated neutron flux in sensitive volume of BF3 detector in different thickness of graphite and nano-diamond layers (Reflection) Figure 8: Calculated neutron flux in sensitive volume of LiI detector in different thickness of graphite and nano-diamond layers (Shielding) Because of hydrogen presence in the nano-diamond composition, it can reflect neutrons better than graphite. The neutrons counting is increased by graphite and nano-diamond thickness enhancement. However, determining thenumberofneutrons is faster for nano-diamond layer. Fig. 4 and fig. 6 show that the reflected neutrons are increased by thickness enhancement. The differences arise from the measurement method as the measurements are done by BF3 detector which measures thermal neutrons. The simulated results are considered the all of neutrons. Also, Fig. 7 and 8 show that nano-diamond has a more shielding effect in comparison with graphite because the net count rate becomes smaller by using nano-diamond shielding. The differences are because of the measurements done by BF3 detector and the simulation results are considered as the spectrum of neutrons. 6-Conclusion Two main factors effecting on neutron reflection are cross section and density. Nano-diamond (C10H16) contains hydrogen and it has larger cross section interaction in comparison with graphite. In addition, the density of nano-diamond and graphite are 3.5 and 1.8 g/cm3 respectively. According to the results, true count of nano-diamond reflector is 2 times of graphite reflector. The simulated and experimental results have good agreement by consideration of errors. Also, the number of low energy neutrons in nano-diamond reflector is larger than in graphite one. Therefore, conventional material can be put aside and nano-diamond is used for neutron shielding. References Glenn F. Knoll, â€Å"Radiation Detection and Measuremen†, Fourth Edition, 2010, , John Wiley Sons, Inc T. Taler, Characterization of Isolated Nnaodiamond Particle, Material Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, 6-18 (2004). Nicholas Tsoulfanidis; †Measurement and Detection of Radiation†; 2th edition, university of Missouri- Rollapress. 706 (1995). V. A. Artem’ev, †Atomic Energy†, Vol. 94, NO. 4, 282(2003). H.W. Schmitt, R.C. Block, R.L. Bailey, Total neutron cross section of 10B in the thermal neutron energy range, Volume17, June–July 1960, Pages 109–115. K. Kleinknecht, Dtectors for Particle Radiation, Cambridge University Press, London New York New Rochele, 120-125(1986). [1] Isfahan University, Faculty Of Advanced Science And Technologies, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Isfahan, Iran Ahmad Taghian; Email: [emailprotected]; Telephone: 00989128482357 Davood Rahi: Email: [emailprotected] [2] Malek Ashtar University Of Technology, Health Physics Department, Shahin shahr, Isfahan, Iran Hosein Sadeghi: Email: [emailprotected]

Historical Remediation Essay -- Writing Technology Technological Paper

Historical Remediation The history of writing is filled with accounts of humans struggling with new forms of writing tools. With the development of new writing technologies, newer tools remodeled older forms of technology to create faster writing systems. Remediation has made huge impacts on the literary world over the past few generations by looking at the cultural rivalry between different technologies and the progression of those technologies. As the years pass, new inventions are continually created to help make the tools used for writing faster, convenient and more efficient at a lower cost. Pursuits for economical writing tools date to before 1000 BC when the Egyptians created a delicate, layered reed called papyrus, to write hieroglyphs. To make this fragile material, Egyptians had to cut and peel tall papyrus reeds creating â€Å"thin strips, which were laid on a flat, wet surface, first vertically and then horizontally†¦ the two layers bonded to form a sheet of papyrus, which was dried in the sun and polished smooth with ivory or shell† (â€Å"Scroll and Codex†). Due to the long process of producing papyrus, the cost of owning the tool was very expensive and only available to the wealthy. In addition to being expensive, papyrus was not a very time efficient tool. The process of making the material was a large factor, but also storing and durability were a problem. However, for those who could afford and store the difficult items, papyrus provided a way for oral communications to be written down. â€Å"Writing on papyrus remediated oral communication by involving the eye as well as the ear and so giving the words a different claim to reality† (Bolter 23). Finally, important decrees and information could be written ... ...will continue to write by hand when they need to, but primary use the computer for everyday use. As the people of the 15th century learned to deal with progress of mass production, people of the 21st century will learn with each new remediation, the writing tool only improves. Works Cited Bolter, Jay David. Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. Ilan, Meir Bar. Parchment. 13 February 2003. < http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/parchmen.html >. â€Å"Scroll and Codex.† Encyclopedia Romana Online. Encyclopedia Romona. 2001-2002. 11 February 2003. . Tomlinson, Sue. History of Writing. 1998-1999. 9 February 2003. .

George Washington Presidential Outline

George Washington I. Background- Birth-February 22, 1723 Death- December 14, 1799 II. Quote- â€Å"The time is now near at hand which must probably determine whether Americans are to be freemen or slaves. . . . The fate of unborn millions will now depend, under God, on the courage and conduct of this army. Our cruel and unrelenting enemy leaves us no choice but a brave resistance or the most abject submission. We have therefore to resolve to conquer or die. † (General orders, July 2, 1776) III. Prior occupations- Captain and Colonel in Virginia militia Plantation owner/Farmer Service in the Virginia House of Burgesses Delegate to the First Continental Congress General of the American Army IV. Dates in Office- 1789-1792 1793-1797 V. Prominent issues of elections- Washington was elected unanimously and did not host a campaign VI. Opponents of terms- N/A VII. Vice President- John Adams VIII. Political Parties- President- N/A Congress- IX. Foreign Policy- * Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) says that the United States will remain neutral in the series of wars between the French and English as a result of the French Revolution. This proclamation was not viewed favorably by the American people who despised the British and thought that the United States should help the French in hopes of prolonging the Franco-American Alliance. Washington issued this proclamation in spite of these arguments because he saw that remaining neutral in European conflicts as the only way to insure the continuance of the United States. * The Genet Affair (1793) was a series of problems that the French emissary Edmund Charles Genet caused while in the United States. Genet immediately started to drum up support for the French from among the American people, especially here the Republican-Democrats were influential. Genet even went as far as to outfit privateers to attack Spanish Florida. When Washington tried to deport the emissary, he realized that Genets political party had fallen from power and would be killed on his return. Washington allowed Genet to remain in the United States. * Jay’s Treaty with England (1794) was an at tempt by the United States and Britain to settle the problems remaining between them after the War of Independence by representatives of both countries with Chief Justice John Jay acting for the United States. It was almost not supported by the United States because Jay was a Federalist and the Jeffersonians believed that he had forfeited American rights during the treaty in order to appease Britain. The treaty was successful in solving many of America’s grievances but also heightened tensions between the two political parties. * The Pinckney Treaty (1795) was a treaty with Spain carried out by Thomas Pinckney to determine a definite border between Spanish Florida and the southern boundary of the United States, free navigation of the Mississippi by American traders and established trading relations between the United States and Spain. Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) was an urge from him to the American people and the next President to keep the fledgling country from involving itself in foreign affairs so that the United States could develop more economically and militarily. This leads to the American isolationist mentality for most of its existence. X. Domestic Policy * Washington elected unanimously to be the first president of the United States (1789) * The Judiciary Act (1789) created a three tiered national court system that upheld the principle of the Federal government’s supremacy while also compromising with the States rights. Bill of Rights (1791) added to the constitution to appease anti-federalists who believed that the Federal Government would squash the states and the people. These amendments helped to help people see the good in a central government. * First Bank of the United States charted (1791) by Congress as a response to Hamilton’s financial plan. This congressional decision lead to creation of the Hamilton-lead Federalists and the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans along with controversy over the central governments jurisdiction for years. * Vermont is first admitted to the union after the original 13 colonies (1791) Washington begins second term as president (1793) * The Fugitive Slave Act (1793) was passed by co ngress to prohibit the freeing of persons â€Å"held to Service and Labour. † It made freeing slaves illegal and forced States to return and/or help locate any fugitive slaves in the boundaries, regardless of whether they were a slave-free state or not. To do so, the act recognized the roles of â€Å"agents† in recovering these fugitives, authorized judges and magistrates to oversee transfers of slaves, and imposed a fine on any person helping runaway slaves. This was the start of the real slavery issue in the United States. The Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) was battle between the Miami Indian tribes lead by Little Turtle and the American Army lead by General Anthony Wayne. Wayne was more prepared than his predecessors and successfully crushed the Miami tribes in Ohio. * Treaty of Greenville (1795) was signed between the Miami Confederacy and the United States to stop aggressions between the two groups. The United States benefitted from this treaty more because the C onfederacy seceded approximately 25,000 square miles of territory in the Ohio are, more than half of present day Ohio. Naturalization Act (1795) was passed by congress to allow â€Å"†¦ any alien, being a free white person, may be admitted to become a citizen of the United States. † This was the first law to define restrictions on who may or may not become a citizen of the United States. XI. Economic Policy- * Samuel Slater sets up first American factory (1790) * Alexander Hamilton’s Financial plan (1790) helps to unite the United States through a common problem of debt XII. Supreme Court- None XIII. Social Events- * Whiskey Rebellion (1794) was a revolt by Western Pennsylvanian farmers protesting the new taxes on whiskey. Disbanded by Washington-lead militia without blood-shed. XIV. New Technologies- * Cotton Gin invented (1793) which leads to an increase in cotton growth and the Southern economy XV. Presidential Evaluation- George Washington was a president of the highest measures. He set up the office of the president almost single-handedly and had to settle disgruntled farmers in western Pennsylvania that were specters of the original Revolutionaries. He also had to juggle both the British and French harassments and also choose to not support the new French government in their war against Britain. That choice was unpopular among many of the American people but he kept to his decision because he wanted to make sure that his new nation would continue to exist and hold its own against any foreign power in the future. To rate George Washington is an extremely difficult thing to do. The man set the guidelines of the presidency and was always looking out for the good of the government and the people. I will rate him 10/10 because he is the guideline for all the other presidents to compare to. XVI. Themes- War and Diplomacy- * George Washington Presidential Outline I. George Washington (1732-1799) II. â€Å"I have no other view than to promote the public good, and am unambitious of honors not founded in the approbation of my Country. † III. He was a surveyor, planter, and general of the Army of the United Colonies. IV. His term was from 1789-1797. V. There were no prominent issues in his first or scone term and ran unopposed. VI. He didn't have any opponents, it was only a matter of who would become vice president. VII. John Adams was his vice president for both of his terms. VIII. Washington had no political party, and there was no congressional majority yet. IX. Foreign policy decisions Proclamation of Neutrality: prevented Americans from supplying either side with weapons or help, stated that the U. S would not offer protection to Americans who violated neutrality laws, and that the United States would prosecute anyone in its jurisdiction that violated international neutrality. Genet Affair: Citizen Edmond-Charles Genet violated the neutrality laws by planning to use American ports to stop British commerce and support France, which disgraced French supporters in the U. S. Jay Treaty with England: withdrawal of British soldiers in the west of U. S. , commission to settle border issues with U. S. and Canada, commission to resolve American losses in British ship seizures and loyalist losses from Revolutionary War Battle of Fallen Timbers: famous for the decisive victory of the United States over a confederacy of Indian tribes, took place between the two at Fallen Timbers, which was an area full of trees toppled by a tornado, Americans wanted to settle the west but were afraid of the natives Treaty of Greenville: between Indians and Americans, natives give up land in southwest part of northwestern territory and other defined areas, U. S. pays tribe $20,000 and $9,500 a year to split among tribes, tribes can still hunt there Naturalization Act: raised the period of residence from two years to five years before a person could be a citizen Pinckney Treaty with Spain: Spain recognized U. S. borders at Mississippi River and 31st parallel, granted Americans the right to deposit goods for transshipment at New Orleans X. Political Affairs George Washington is Elected: Only president unanimously elected Judiciary Act: established a court of one chief justice and five associate justices, court met for the first time in 1790 Alexander Hamilton's Financial Plan: proposed that the federal government take on debts contracted by the states during the revolution, at the national government borrow money to be repaid over a long period, national bank runs it and have taxes to help pay for it, pay off all debts and high tariffs kept out foreign competition Bill of Rights added to the Constitution: added to make all states ratify the Constitution and ensure rights of the people First Bank of US chartered: created by Hamilton to tackle war debt and make one currency Vermont admitted to the Union Second Term: unanimously elected again Whiskey Rebellion: protest on tax of 25% of liquor's value, showed government not afraid to enforce it's laws with it's militia, farmers who sold corn as whiskey hit the hardest and western frontiersmen were main prostestors Farewell Address: country scared that it would tear apart without Washington as president, but he said that whatever changes happened were because of their efforts and success, and he wasn't qualified for being president anyways XI. Economic Decisions Alexander Hamilton's Financial Plan: (see above) XII. Major Supreme Court Cases N/A XIII. Major Social Events Fugitive Slave Law: Slave hunters were allowed to capture an escapee in any territory or state and only had to say in front of a state or federal judge that the person was a runaway, captive was not entitled to a trial by jury and the judge's decision was terminal, people hiding an escaped slave could be fined $500 XIV. Major Inventions Cotton Gin Invented: took seeds out of cotton quickly, created widespread cash crop of cotton and revived slavery Samuel Slater builds first American factory: used stolen ideas from Britain to create first American textile factory, hired entire families, including children, to work in his mills; workers lived in company-owned housing, shopped at company-owned stores, and studied in company-run schools XV. Presidential Evaluation President Washington was kind of overrated in my opinion. We glorify him today as if he was perfect and god-like, but most of â€Å"his† achievements are actually a result of his colleagues' ideas. Alexander Hamilton had many of the attainments during Washington's presidency, and really ensured that the country would continue to prosper and pay off all debts. George Washington's best decision was actually surrounding himself with intelligent people to rely on in times of crisis that the new country would go through. His major foreign successes would have to be the Proclamation of Neutrality and his treaties with Europe. The proclamation helped keep the country out of wars and trouble in general at a time of weakness. Any fighting could have destroyed the nation if they lost and it would be back under the command of a European power. His treaties wit Europe gained the U. S. land and respect, helping in the long run. His major domestic successes would be the Bill of Rights and Hamilton's Financial Program. The Bill of Rights made sure that the rights that we still have today would be granted to citizens of the nation, though there were qualifications based on gender and race. Without the financial plan, the U. S. ight never have fully payed off it's debts to Europe and caused further conflict, and it made it easier to pay off with it's extended period that wouldn't require high taxes all at once. He and his cabinet handled the issues of building a nation and having rights for the people while avoiding the tyranny like they had in Britain very well, though he played an almost minimal role in the handling of it. Overall, I rate him 7 out of 10. XVI. Major Themes Slavery: Negative Impact -Passing of t he Fugitive Slave Law -Slaves and black men and women had no rights in the Bill of Rights Invention of the cotton gin revived slavery because of cheap labor and massive production of cotton -Slaves treated like second class citizens with no trial by jury, freedom, or credibility in matters of importance -Status: Slavery is running rampant in the South with large plantations of cotton and cheap easy labor. Though the North opposes it, there are no movements as of yet to abolish it. During the presidency, nothing is being done to free slaves, give black people more freedoms and rights,or find an alternative work force. The status of slavery right now is bleak with no signs of improvement. Social and Political Movements and Reforms: Positive impact for some, negative for others – Bill of Rights gives freedoms to some Americans and gives an overall better quality of life than under Britain – Slavery was an important social issue that wasn't only ignored, but perpetuated by the cotton industry – More jobs in factories, leading to better education with in-company schools and better quality of life – Complete political change from the tyranny of Britain o a representative democracy in it's very early stages – Status: The country is doing well for being brand new and handling tough situations with good long term solutions. There are some massive improvements over the original government of England, such as education and the rights of the people of the United States, or at least a select few. Major issues like slavery are not being addressed, and are actually being furth ered by the lack of help in finding alternative work forces and advances in the rights of every citizen, not just the landowning white males.

The Difference Between Purines and Pyrimidines

The Difference Between Purines and Pyrimidines Purines and pyrimidines are two types of aromatic heterocyclic organic compounds. In other words, they are ring structures (aromatic) that contain nitrogen as well as carbon in the rings (heterocyclic). Both purines and pyrimidines are similar to the chemical structure of the organic molecule pyridine (C5H5N). Pyridine, in turn, is related to benzene (C6H6), except one of the carbon atoms is replaced by a nitrogen atom. Purines and pyrimidines are important molecules in organic chemistry and biochemistry because they are the basis for other molecules (e.g., caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, thiamine) and because they are key components of the nucleic acids dexoyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Pyrimidines A pyrimidine is an organic ring consisting of six atoms: 4 carbon atoms and 2 nitrogen atoms. The nitrogen atoms are placed in the 1 and 3 positions around the ring. Atoms or groups attached to this ring distinguish pyrimidines, which include cytosine, thymine, uracil, thiamine (vitamin B1), uric acid, and barbituates. Pyrimidines function in DNA and RNA, cell signaling, energy storage (as phosphates),  enzyme regulation, and to make protein and starch. Purines A purine contains a pyrimidine ring fused with an imidazole ring (a five-member ring with two non-adjacent nitrogen atoms). This two-ringed structure has nine atoms forming the ring: 5 carbon atoms and 4 nitrogen atoms. Different purines are distinguished by the atoms or functional groups attached to the rings. Purines are the most widely occurring heterocyclic molecules that contain nitrogen. They are abundant in meat, fish, beans, peas, and grains. Examples of purines include caffeine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, uric acid, theobromine, and the nitrogenous bases adenine and guanine. Purines serve much the same function as pyrimidines in organisms. They are part of DNA and RNA, cell signaling, energy storage, and enzyme regulation. The molecules are used to make starch and proteins. Bonding Between Purines and Pyrimidines While purines and pyrimidines include molecules that are active on their own (as in drugs and vitamins), they also form hydrogen bonds between each other to link the two strands of the DNA double helix and to form complementary molecules between DNA and RNA. In DNA, the purine adenine bonds to the pyrimidine thymine and the purine guanine bonds to the pyrimidine cytosine. In RNA, adenine bonds to uracil and guanine still bonds with cytosine. Approximately equal amounts of purines and pyrimidines are required to form either DNA or RNA. Its worth noting there are exceptions to the classic Watson-Crick base pairs. In both DNA and RNA, other configurations occur, most often involving methylated pyrimidines. These are called wobble pairings. Comparing and Contrasting Purines and Pyrimidines The purines and pyrimidines both consist of heterocyclic rings. Together, the two sets of compounds make up the nitrogenous bases. Yet, there are distinct differences between the molecules. Obviously, because purines consist of two rings rather than one, they have a higher molecular weight. The ring structure also affects the melting points and solubility  of the purified compounds. The human body synthesizes (anabolism) and breaks down (catabolism) the molecules differently. The end product of purine catabolism is uric acid, while the end products of pyrimidine catabolism are ammonia and carbon dioxide. The body does not make the two molecules in the same location, either. Purines are synthesized primarily in the liver, while a variety of tissues make pyrimidines. Here is a summary of the essential facts about purines and pyrimidines: Purine Pyrimidine Structure Double ring (one is a pyrimidine) Single ring Chemical Formula C5H4N4 C4H4N2 Nitrogenous Bases Adenine, guanine Cytosine, uracil, thymine Uses DNA, RNA, vitamins, drugs (e.g., barbituates), energy storage, protein and starch synthesis, cell signaling, enzyme regulation DNA, RNA, drugs (e.g., stimulants), energy storage, protein and starch synthesis, enzyme regulation, cell signaling Melting Point 214 C (417 F) 20 to 22 C (68 to 72 F) Molar Mass 120.115 gmol1 80.088 g mol1 Solubility (Water) 500 g/L Miscible Biosynthesis Liver Various tissues Catabolism Product Uric acid Ammonia and carbon dioxide Sources Carey, Francis A. (2008). Organic Chemistry (6th ed.). Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 0072828374.Guyton, Arthur C. (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0.Joule, John A.; Mills, Keith, eds. (2010). Heterocyclic Chemistry (5th ed.). Oxford: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-405-13300-5.Nelson, David L. and Michael M Cox (2008). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (5th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 272. ISBN 071677108X.Soukup, Garrett A. (2003). Nucleic Acids: General Properties. eLS. American Cancer Society. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001335 ISBN 9780470015902.

Harrison Bergeron and real life

Harrison Bergeron and real life Character Similarities Kurt Vonnegut’s â€Å"Harrison Bergeron† tells a story about a fourteen year old â€Å"child† who is somewhat of a prodigy. In a world where people are held back because of their talents, and their intelligence is marred by the social rules of all people being the same, Harrison refuses to succumb to the pressure and wants to break free (Gelder, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"Harrison Bergeron† and real life specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main character can be greatly compared to my cousin who is almost 20 years old. He is also a very talented person and likes music. His ear is very well adjusted to sounds and melodies, so when he hears some song or is creating some of his own, he is able to understand what is needed to fill in the gaps or make the melody more beautiful (Werlock, 2009). Another similarity between Kurt Vonnegut’s character a nd my cousin Phil is that they are both very analytical. Very often, I find Phil sitting behind his desk and writing out his thoughts. He seems to be eager to figure out what the world is, why people have lives and understanding. I find it his talent to have a â€Å"feeling† towards something. When he thinks about a problem, he does not use logic first. He comprehends the situation and listens to himself letting his inner self to tell him how he feels about a subject. It is interesting to note that he is not quite aware how this process takes place, but it is for certain that he is able to distinguish between useless and important information which later becomes key to a the problem at hand. He is also very knowledgeable of people’s psychology and inner desires, so when he thinks about someone he is able to discern the real behavior from fake one. I think that he has a gift of predicting certain things because all the problems that he encounters, he solves. As Harrison felt pushed down by the government, and prevented from reaching his goals and dreams, so does Phil. Sometimes, he engages in conversations with my father where they discuss why the government is so unwilling to allow people to reach their heights and become everything they can be. Often, they talk about conspiracies in educational institutions and work places, citing the fact that the information that is presented is purposefully faulty, and people are â€Å"dumbed down†, so that they show no resistance to the authority of the government. Phil always feels emotional and wants to change something. This is another similarity between Phil and Harrison Bergeron because they are both trying to change the world (Farrell, 2009). Phil is thinking about publishing a book, but it would be extremely difficult because the things that he wants to write are very controversial and challenging. He is sure that his greater purpose in life is to make the world better. His thoughts always revo lve around making people realize that whatever the governments or media say is not what is most valuable in life. He wants to bring people down to a more â€Å"natural† existence where there is greater interaction between people and the world.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The parallel between the two people, one fictional and one real is very obvious because both seem to function on a higher level. Nature is still a very mysterious thing, and it shows its power and secrets through people. References Farrell, S. (2009). Critical Companion to Kurt Vonnegut. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing. Gelder, G. (2009). The Very Best of Fantasy Science Fiction: Sixtieth Anniversary Anthology. San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications. Werlock, A. (2009). Companion to Literature: Facts on File Companion to the American Short Story. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing.

Comparing Organization of Politics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Comparing Organization of Politics - Term Paper Example Pluralism can be defined as a kind of political theory which states that power statutorily resides with the central government, but non-governmental and independent organizations like lobbyists also exert significant influence on the final decision-making outcomes. Political pluralism is largely practiced in the United States where special-interest organizations hold some influence mainly on the members of Senate and House of Representatives whom they had financially helped during their campaign periods. In the same vein, hyper pluralism is a more dangerous situation whereby the special-interest 2 groups and lobbyists have become quite too powerful for the central government to handle or control. This can occur in a country where corruption is endemic and the executive arm of the government has been bought by the rich and mighty in the country. Hence, it has been discovered that both pluralism and hyper pluralism in political organization within a country also have a far-reaching eff ect on the citizen participation in the entire political processes of the country (Johnson 251). There are distinct differences in the regimes where pluralism and hyper pluralism political systems are in operation. However, the main similarity of these two forms of political organization is that citizens would be robbed of their rights to actually influence the governance of their country because the kind of politicians sent to the Congress (for example in America) are not the group of people that believe in their simple interests of the commoners, but they are there to satisfy the desires of their influential sponsors. Talking about a pluralistic regime, the central government’s control on the governance is still substantial. Take for instance, the current President of the United States, Barack Obama made the special-interest organizations and lobbyists the target of his presidential campaign, having realized that their interests in commerce and governmental affairs supersed e that of the public; and even though they are small in number, their interests appear to weigh in as burdens over that of ordinary Americans. These independent or non-government groups often use their money to campaign for Congress members of 3 their choice. They would do everything in their power to make sure that their candidates win the elections. And once these Congress members resume their legislative duties, the special-interest, non-governmental organizations rise up to demand for laws that would safeguard their business, ideology or political interests. Some of these lobbyists are multinational companies, non-government organizations, trade and commerce groups or associations. Since the special-interest organizations are responsible for dictating the kind of laws to be passed in the Congress, they inadvertently reduce the participation of the ordinary people in the governance process. This means that other citizens in the affected country are under their machinations, since the members of Congress or the legislative arm are only answerable to their demands, and not that of the ordinary people in the country (Johnson 163). As indicated above, the executive arm of the regime can still function properly, if the president is a person who thinks about the masses in the country—this means that the president is not aloof from people’s needs and relate with them on a personal level through his or her organized method of communication. Nowadays, presidents can chat with their citizens online or even receive comments on their online profiles.

Food and Drug Association Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Food and Drug Association - Assignment Example Restriction on the extensive use of the tobacco products, nutritional appendages, preparation and over-the-counter medications, vaccines, and different kinds of biopharmaceuticals products. In common words, one can define FDA as a â€Å"scientific, regulatory, and public health agency† (Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, 2013). The agency grew from a single chemist in the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1862 to a staff of approximately 9,100 employees by 2001. The history of FDA is also an eventful one. It was initially known as Division of Chemistry and later on, after 1901 it was started to know as Bureau of Chemistry. The organization started to enjoy the power of regulating the operation of various companies after the implementation of Federal Food and Drugs Act by the US government in the year of 1906. The name was changed to the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration in July 1927 and from 1930 onwards the present name was incorporated (Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy, 2013). The act of 1906 was replaced in the year of 1936 in the USA when Tennessee Drug Company brings together and marketed a form of the new sulfa wonder drug, Elixir Sulfanilamide- which was a medicine for pediatric patients. The product was launched in the US market untested and the result was horrible. The solvent of this medi cine was highly toxic in nature which was the main reason behind the death of over 100 people in the country. Most of them were children. To control the anger of the people and at the same time make the food and drug products more secured the US government under the leadership of President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act on 1938. This made the functioning of all different companies more systematic and there was more rigorous monitoring in place in terms of the standard and quality of the finished goods, the process associated with the production, quality, and standard of raw materials used etc.